Environment and Energy

5.1.1

Greenhouse Gas Emissions

The burning of fossil fuels for cars and trucks, heating of homes and other buildings, running machines, computers and factories is the primary sources of C02 emissions in industrialized regions.  Methane, the other major greenhouse gas (GHG), is emitted when garbage and waste decomposes in landfills.  Greenhouse gases are also emitted from agriculture, particularly cattle raising and mining.  In addition, deforestation removes a carbon sink, as plants consume carbon dioxide and emit oxygen, contributing to increased atmospheric concentrations of carbon.

The city of Boston's total greenhouse gas emissions fell to 7,880,000 metric tons in 2010 from 8,365,000 in 2005, with per capita emissions falling from 13.7 metric tons per person in 2005 to 12.8 in 2010.

The largest share of all GHG emissions come from commercial and industrial uses which fell from 4,510,000 metric tons in 2005 to 4,110,000 in 2010.  Emissions from the second largest contributor, transportation, fell from 2,340,000 metric tons in 2005 to 2,280,000 in 2010.  Residential emissions fell slightly from 1,480,000 metric tons in 2005 to 1,460,000 in 2010.

5.2.1

The Ecological Footprint per Capita Consumption of Global Resources

The ecological footprint is the total area of the Earth’s surface required to produce the food, goods and resources consumed by one individual each year.  It captures the extent to which human consumption can be supported by the Earth’s capacity to regenerate natural resources.  To sustain adequate living conditions, consumption cannot threaten the renewal of natural systems and waste must be discharged within the limits of the Earth’s capacity to absorb it.  Individual lifestyle choices - housing and transportation, food, energy and water consumption - combine to create the ecological footprint.

Massachusetts’ energy consumption is increasing annually, despite slow population growth.  Yet, the Commonwealth is one of the more efficient consumers of energy among the 50 states and the District of Columbia.  In 2007—the last year for which data are available—Massachusetts ranked 48th in per capita energy consumption, unchanged from 2004 and falling from 42nd in 2000.  US residents consumed, on average, more than 355 million btu per capita in 2007 up from less than 350 in 2003, Massachusetts residents consumed only 234 million btu per capita, down from 255 in 2004. California, which has been the US leader in energy efficiency and per capita energy use, now ranks just behind Massachusetts with New York and Rhode Island now the most energy efficient states.

5.2.2

Waste and recycling tonnage and rates

• Total Trash & Waste Tonnage
• Total Recycling Tonnage

5.3.1

Public Health Stresses on Children

• Percent of Boston Teens Who Have
• Ever Been Diagnosed with Asthma
  Percent Children with Elevated Lead Levels

Access to clean air and healthy homes are essential to nurturing healthy children with low rates of asthma and blood lead levels.  However, pollutants emitted by diesel buses and trains, automobiles, and trucks, as well as by certain businesses such as auto repair shops and hazardous waste-related enterprises, are often linked poor child health outcomes in many low-income communities and communities of color.

5.3.2
Environmental Justice Populations

5.3.3
Environmental Hazard Points per Square Mile

5.4.1

Trends in Climate Change, Metro Boston and New England

• Number of Days Above 90 Degrees, Low & High Emissions Scenario
• Number of Days Above 90 Degrees, Low & High Emissions Scenario
  

Global warming can lead to volatile and extreme weather patterns such as floods, droughts and storms that affect the quality and security of the natural and built environments. Conditions linked to global warming are projected to influence agricultural yields, cause coastal flooding as sea levels rise from the melting of glacial ice, and affect human health. Tracking trends in climate change helps us to raise awareness of the global impact of human activity and the importance of using energy more efficiently and innovating new technologies.

On average, Boston experienced ten days above 90 degrees Fahrenheit and one day above 100 degrees between 1961 and 1999, with a maximum nineteen days above 90 in 1985 and five days above 100 in 1968, according to the Northeast Climate Impact Assessment.

However, the number of extreme heat days in Boston is projected to rise considerably over the next century.  Based on a high emissions scenario, between 2000 and 2099, Boston could experiences an average of 37 days above 90 degrees and 10 days above 100 degrees, with some projections showing as many as 80 days above 90 and 40 days above 100 degrees in a single year.  Even based on a low-emissions scenario, Boston could experience and average 23 days and as many as 51 days above 90 degrees in a single year and an average of 4 days with as many as 13 days above 100 degrees in a single year.

5.4.2
Green Buildings and Transit

5.4.3

Residential & Commercial Energy Use by Type, Boston

• Commercial & Industrial Energy Use by Type
• Residential Energy Use by Type

5.5.1
Smart Growth Measured by Trends in Development

• 40R/40S Units
• Land-Use Summary Statistics, Boston

According to the Massachusetts Smart Growth Alliance, "Development consumes two acres of open space each hour in Massachusetts. About 88 percent of this land is going to new housing, and of this, 65 percent is for low-density residential development."  Massachusetts General Law 40R, was written to encourage Smart Growth zoning in Massachusetts that allow for higher density, transit-oriented development.

As of 2012, 30 cities and towns in Massachusetts had approved 40R Smart Growth Zoning Districts with 11,570 units permitted.  This is an increase from 16 40R districts and 9,800 units approved in 2007.  Boston has approved 578 new units under 40R which will be used to increase high density, transit oriented development.

In Boston more than 7,300 of the 31,600 acres are multi-family residential and an additional 4,500 are zoned as high density residential areas.  The third largest land use purpose is 3,400 acres for transportation.  Despite such high density development, Boston has a large area of open, natural spaces including more than 2,450 forrested acres, nearly 600 open space acres, 567 acres of sandy beach areas and 350 acres of saltwater wetland.

5.5.2

Housing Density and Services with 1/4 Mile of Transit Nodes

• Population and Location of MBTA Stations
  
  
  

Almost 80% of jobs in Boston, 51% of Boston’s public schools and 56% of all Boston residents are located within a 10-minute walk of an MBTA commuter rail or subway station or a surface trolley stop.

An analysis of the Boston Redevelopment Authority’s development pipeline by Northeastern University’s Center for Urban and Regional Policy found that new “transit oriented” development was proposed or under construction in 15 of Boston’s 19 neighborhoods.  The 46 proposed projects located within ¼ mile of a transit or commuter rail station represent a pipeline of more than 9,000 housing units and 23 million square feet of development.

Concerned about traffic congestion, loss of open space and increases in air pollution, many cities and towns in Metro Boston are starting to promote “smart growth” and transit-oriented development.  Although the number of smart growth projects and the number of communities working to attract such development is on the rise, needed changes in zoning are still very slow.

5.6.1

Changes in Air Quality Level of PM10 and PM2.5 Micron Particles in the Air

• Number of Days with Poor Air Quality
  

Tiny particles or liquid droplets suspended in the air that can contain a variety of chemical components are termed Particulate Matter (PM). Some particles are directly emitted into the air and come from a variety of sources such as cars, trucks, buses, factories, construction sites, tilled fields, unpaved roads, stone crushing, and wood burning. Other particles are formed in the atmosphere by chemical reactions.

Particles less than 2.5 microns in diameter are termed PM2.5, and particles smaller than 10 microns are termed PM10.  PM10 particles are visible as smoke or dust and settle out relatively rapidly, while the tiniest particles can be suspended in the air for long periods of time and contribute to haze in the atmosphere.  They are also the most harmful to human health because they can penetrate deep into the lungs.  Virtually all particulate matter from mobile sources is PM2.5. The State Department of Environmental Protection monitors PM in Suffolk County, using four sites in Boston and one in Chelsea.

The 2008 annual mean for PM10 levels was 23—unchanged from 2006 and the lowest level recorded since 1994.  The annual mean for PM10 did not change much between 1994 and 2002; however, in 2003, the annual mean dropped 19% over the previous year and remained the same for 2004.

Monitoring of smaller particles, PM2.5, began in 1999 at the same locations.  The annual mean concentration continued to drop, reaching 11.3 in 2008, from the high of 16.6 in 2001.  Based on this monitoring data, the federal Environmental Protection Agency found that Boston currently complies with the air quality standard for fine particulates.  Although Boston has not been classified as a “nonattainment” area for fine particles, it will be important to continue monitoring and ensure that levels of these most harmful particulates remain at low levels.

5.6.2
Regional Ozone Smog

5.6.3

Low-Emission Vehicles

• Total Hybrid and Alternative Fuel Vehicles Registered
• Hybrid and Alternative Fuel Vehicles Registered per 1,000
  
  

5.7.1

Swimmable Days and Violations of Safe Swimming Standards in Boston's River and Harbor

Boston is surrounded by the fresh waters of the Charles, Neponset and Mystic Rivers and the marine waters of Boston Harbor and Massachusetts Bay.  Boston Harbor’s severe levels of pollution eventually resulted in a federal court case and the mandated "Boston Harbor Cleanup" - among the nation’s largest-ever wastewater infrastructure upgrade projects, taking nearly 20 years and $4 billion to complete.  Ensuring revival of the rivers and continued use of harbor resources will help round off that investment.

After the Environmental Protection Agency set a goal of a swimmable Charles River by 2005, clean-up efforts led to a dramatic increase in the number of days the Charles was safe for boating and swimming. The EPA’s annual grade for the Charles rose from D in 1995 to an all-time high of B++ in 2007 and then dropped back to B+ in 2008. The EPA began a similar program for the Mystic River in 2006 and its initial grade of D rose to C- in 2008.

Selected swimming beaches in Boston are tested by the Massachusetts (DPH) for enterococcus, a pathogen that is strongly correlated with swimming-associated disease and is now the required indicator organism for determining contamination at marine bathing beaches in Massachusetts.  In 2008, the exceedance rate for Boston beaches was 10.3%, the highest since 2005 but still lower than nearly 12% in 2001.  Among all of Boston Beaches, only 4 had an exceedance rate lower than 10%: Pleasure Bay (3.3%) City Point Beach (1.3%), Lovell’s Island (0%) and Spectacle Island (0%).  The highest rate of un-swimmable days was at Tenant, which exceeded contamination levels in nearly 20% of tests in 2008. But improvements are expected in the near future as a result of a recent lawsuit settlement under which the Massachusetts Water Resources Authority has finalized plans to reduce “combined sewer overflows” affecting Dorchester Bay

5.7.2

Efficient and Sustainable Use of Fresh Water Supplies within Available Means

Demand on the MWRA system has remained below the safe yield of 300 million gallons per day (mgd), and has declined to low of  196.7 mgd in through October of 2009 — a decrease of about 145 mgd from the peak usage in 1980, despite continued growth in the system’s service area.

The rate of unaccounted-for water—water lost between the source and customers’ revenue meters due to leakage—decreased from more than 30% in 1980 to less than 15% in 2000.   In 2000, MAPC’s Regional Services Consortium project identified leakage of 524 gallons per minute from water systems. The repair of these leaks will produce a reduction in water demand for the North Coastal, Ipswich River and Parker River watersheds by 275 million gallons per year.

Sustaining the water efficiency achievements of Boston and the MWRA will require continued maintenance and upgrading of aging infrastructure.  Massachusetts’ new Water Policy, which sets a target of 65 gallons per person per day for residential water use in communities, provides an important regulatory framework to sustain and support water conservation efforts in Boston and statewide.

5.8.1

Acres of Protected and Restored Urban Wilds and Natural Areas, Boston

• Urban Wilds
  

Boston, with its harbor, islands, rivers, ponds, estuaries, wetlands and parks provides a wide range of habitats for living creatures. The protection of these micro-environments that enable life to survive in an urban ecosystem is largely dependent on protecting the urban wilds and natural areas in the city from development pressures.

The City of Boston currently contains 36 ‘Urban Wilds’ sites with nearly 240 protected acres, according to the Boston Natural Areas Network—a complete list of sites is available through the City of Boston Urban Wilds Initiative.  The Department of Conservation and Recreation acquired 93.3 acres, Boston Parks Department 33 acres, Massachusetts Audubon Society 34 acres, and Trustees of Reservations 25 acres.  In total, since the Urban Wilds effort began in 1975, close to 831 acres have been protected in Boston, and about 605 remain.

The Urban Wilds protected areas include major riverfront and harbor front lands along Boston Harbor, Dorchester Bay, Neponset River, Mother Brook and Chelsea Creek (East Boston, Dorchester, Mattapan, Hyde Park), as well as areas of salt marsh, riverbank and upland.  Many Urban Wilds were former industrial sites, despite their waterfront locations, and were contaminated.  Their protection by public park agencies has resulted in lands restored to natural conditions and safely accessible for recreation and the enjoyment of nature.  Inland, a significant corridor of woodlands in Jamaica Plain and West Roxbury has been protected, providing wildlife habitat and bird flyways.

In addition to acquisitions, the Boston Conservation Commission has accepted conservation restrictions for Urban Wilds sites that have been largely developed.  Although not necessarily large in acres, the conservation restrictions are important to preserve highly sensitive parts of sites and to buffer existing neighborhoods.

5.8.2

Biodiversity: Number and Volume of Bird Species

•  Number and Volume of Bird Species

According to the 2008 National Audubon Society Annual Christmas Bird Count, over 42,000 birds and 123 different species were spotted in Greater Boston in one day—a decline of more than 7,000 birds over 2006.  While species variation has remain fairly steady since 1990—reaching a high of 138 in 1999—the total bird population has fallen dramatically from a high of 237,800 in 1991.

Within the City of Boston—according to data gathered in 2002—on a single day at a single place, Boston Public School students observed 127 birds from 15 species—including four Kingbirds, six Mallard Ducks, 71 Canadian Geese, one American Crow, 10 House Sparrows, four Song Sparrows, four Rough-winged Swallows, one Spotted Sandpiper, one Baltimore Oriole, six Common Grackles, two Blue Jays, one Black-capped Chickadee, and three Rock Doves.

5.9.1

Green Space Distribution

•  Open Space per Capita and Child Population by Census Tract

Green and open spaces provide residents and children the opportunity to experience the natural world in the heart of the city, engage in healthy outdoor recreation and exercise and contributes to the ecological integrity of an urban area.

The Trust for Public Land, 2009 City Park Facts reporting on the state of park land and open space in the 77 most populous cities in the US found that Boston has 5,040 acres of public parkland and ranks 5th among high-density cities in parkland as a percent of total land area (16.3%), 2nd in acres per residents (8.3), 9th in playgrounds per 10,000 residents (3.6) and spent $101 per resident on Parks and Recreation in FY07.

The City of Boston contains 5,518 acres of open space, including 3,251 acres of parks, playgrounds, squares and outdoor malls, 240 acres of protected ‘urban wilds;’ and 62 acres of community gardens.  The Boston Parks and Recreation Department oversees 2,200 acres of parkland, including 215 parks and playgrounds, 65 squares, urban woodlands and street trees, three active cemeteries, 16 historic burying grounds, and two golf courses.  The balanced distribution of greenspace is a critical component of neighborhood quality.  Over the last 10 years, the Boston Parks and Recreation Department has implemented a $120 million rehabilitation of the city’s park system, targeting every tot lot and the majority of ball fields and courts.

According to the City of Boston Parks Department, Central Boston and the South End have about 2 acres of green space per 1,000 people, the least in the city.  Fenway, Back Bay, and Dorchester have about twice that amount.  Jamaica Plain, Hyde Park, Roslindale, and West Roxbury have the most open space per capital.

5.9.2

Access to and Public Use of Harborwalk and Harbor Islands National Park

• Number of Visitors to the Boston Harbor National Park
  

The long-awaited 120-acre park on Spectacle Island opened to the public in the summer of 2006, with a new pier, marina, visitor center, two public beaches and five miles of walking trails.

In 2002, the last year for which data is available, more than 240,000 visits were made to the Boston Harbor Islands, an indication of the health and popularity of the new national park.  While the largest numbers of visitors come during the summer when ferries are in operation, sections of the national park connected to the mainland, such as Webb State Park, experience year-round use.  Deer Island, which houses the City’s sewer treatment facility, now has a park as well, and Thompson Island houses an Outward Bound facility that can provide a variety of programming to Boston’s youth.

Boston's Harbor Walk is a public walkway along the waterfront, with parks, public art, seating areas, cafes, exhibit areas, interpretive signage, water transportation facilities, and a wide range of other amenities. Nearly 38 miles of the 47-mile Harbor Walk are now completed, with the remainder slated to open in the next few years as waterfront development moves forward.  In recent years, new segments of Harbor Walk have been completed downtown near Lovejoy Wharf, Long Wharf and Lewis Wharf, in South Boston near the K Street electrical substation and the Institute of Contemporary Art, along Fort Point Channel near the InterContinental Hotel and Gillette, and in Dorchester near the Bayside Expo Center and Venezia Restaurant.

5.10.1

Tree Cover and the Number of Bulbs and Flowers Planted

Trees, especially in dense neighborhoods, give people a sense of place, comfort and beauty.  From the grays of winter and the changing greens of spring and summer, to the flaming reds and golds of fall, trees provide majesty and color to the city.  The cooling effect of trees can reduce energy consumption by up to 20% in the summer.  Tree and shrub barriers can reduce noise levels by approximately one-half (in the range of 8–12 decibels).  Wind speed, a problem in urban plazas, can be reduced by more than 30% by planting rows of trees.  Beautification of the public realm increases community pride and the pleasure of the changing seasons.  In addition to trees, flowers are universally appreciated as a source of beauty.

Through June 2012, the City of Boston had planted 600 new trees, however a number of trees across the city had to be remove due to fungal infection, insects or severe weather.  In 2007 the City of Boston and Boston Natural Areas Network launched Grow Boston Greener with the goal of planting 100,000 new trees by 2020 and expanding Boston's tree canopy from 29% to 35% by 2030.

5.10.2

Community Gardens in Boston Neighborhoods

Boston has nearly 200 school and community gardens spread throughout its neighborhoods, with the heaviest concentrations in Dorchester, Roxbury, Jamaica Plain, and the South End.  The Boston Natural Areas Network estimates that more than 10,000 individuals and families are involved in school and community gardening, many of them low-income.

An indicator of the success of community gardens is the number of gardens with well-functioning organizations, according to the Boston Natural Areas Network, which oversees many of the city’s gardens. Well-functioning organizations have a leadership team or multiple people sharing tasks, periodic meetings, and written rules that are distributed to all participants.  There are 64 gardens in Boston that meet these criteria, including 14 in Roxbury and 13 in Jamaica Plain. Other neighborhoods such as Mission Hill have just a single such garden.

5.10.3
Pedestrian and Bike Paths in Boston

5.11.1

Funding for the Environment and Open Space

• Funding for the Department of Energy & Environmental Affairs
• Funding for the Parks Department

The state and the Boston region have many outstanding parklands - and maintaining them requires a regular infusion of funding. As in other areas, deferred maintenance often leads to higher costs, and in the case of parkland, the lack of maintenance also often leads to disuse for recreational purposes and a transition to unwelcome and unsafe use.